* By Ahmad Mohammed, PhD Researcher, Department of Archaeology, Durham University

Digital repatriation, referring refers to the return of cultural heritage in digital form and, has emerged as a pivotal innovation within digital humanities and heritage studies over the past decade (Poske 2024). Traditionally rooted in anthropological practices, digital repatriation has evolved to encompass diverse modes of reconnecting communities with ancestral heritage that has been displaced through the removal of cultural objects, utilizing photographs, audio recordings, 3D scans, virtual reality experiences, and online databases. This practice is fundamentally reshaping the landscape of cultural heritage management, museum curation, and archival practices by challenging traditional notions of ownership, stewardship, and access.

At its core, digital repatriation seeks to address the historical injustices that resulted in the displacement and appropriation of cultural objects during periods of colonialism, conflict, and globalization. Through digital surrogates, source communities are afforded renewed access to their material culture, linguistic traditions, and spiritual practices, often enabling revitalization efforts that strengthen cultural identity and continuity. Advances in digital technology offer transformative possibilities for democratizing access, fostering intercultural dialogue, and supporting community-driven heritage management.

However, digital repatriation is not without profound ethical, legal, and political dilemmas. Critics caution that without genuine power shifts toward originating communities, digital repatriation risks reinforcing colonial hierarchies under the veneer of technological progress (Lixinski 2020; Vapnarsky and Noûus 2021). The creation and circulation of digital surrogates, while offering symbolic returns, may simultaneously allow institutions to retain control over original artifacts, thus perpetuating structural inequalities.

Moreover, issues surrounding intellectual property rights, ethical data management, cultural sensitivity, and digital divides further complicate the landscape. Who controls the digital replicas? Who decides how they are accessed, interpreted, and shared? Can digital copies ever replace the spiritual and material significance of original artifacts? These questions remain at the heart of ongoing scholarly debates.

Understanding digital repatriation, therefore, requires a holistic exploration of its transformative potential, systemic risks, and the critical frameworks necessary for its ethical realization. This study examines both the promises and paradoxes of digital repatriation, emphasizing that truly decolonial digital practices must center the sovereignty, authority, and cultural values of source communities at every stage of the process.

Opportunities and Innovations

Digital repatriation initiatives have opened unprecedented opportunities for re-establishing connections between communities and their dispersed cultural heritage. The ability to access, interact with, and reinterpret heritage materials through digital means has empowered communities to reclaim narratives historically marginalized or misrepresented in institutional settings. Virtual museums, augmented reality exhibitions, and open-access repositories have emerged as platforms that democratize heritage access, facilitating intercultural understanding and knowledge sharing (Wikipedia 2023; Vapnarsky and Noûus 2021).

Moreover, community-led initiatives such as Princeton University’s “Naming and Claiming” project have demonstrated how Indigenous communities can actively participate in reauthoring the digital representation of their heritage (Young 2018). Platforms like Mukurtu offer customizable tools that allow for the imposition of cultural protocols, ensuring that sensitive materials are managed in accordance with traditional knowledge systems (Krupa and Grimm 2021).

Emerging frameworks emphasizing Indigenous data sovereignty (Owan et al. 2023) further enhance these opportunities, providing communities with the mechanisms to govern their digital heritage autonomously. Blockchain technologies and NFTs have also been explored as innovative methods for asserting Indigenous rights and “activating refusal,” allowing communities to control the circulation of their digital heritage and challenge exploitative practices (Feld 2023).

Importantly, projects like Sípnuuk, developed by the Karuk Tribe, exemplify how Indigenous-controlled digital archives can become vital spaces for cultural preservation, education, and intergenerational knowledge transfer (Hillman et al. 2017).

Challenges and Critiques

Despite the promising potential of digital repatriation, significant challenges persist that threaten to undermine its transformative aspirations. A major concern is the risk of “virtual restitution” replacing demands for the physical return of cultural artifacts. Scholars argue that offering digital surrogates without relinquishing ownership of original items can serve to placate repatriation claims without addressing the deeper injustices of colonial dispossession (Poske 2024; Open GLAM 2021).

Furthermore, institutional control over digital surrogates remains pervasive. Digitization often occurs within frameworks that prioritize institutional narratives and archival standards, thereby marginalizing Indigenous epistemologies and cultural protocols (Allahyari 2016; Vapnarsky and Noûus 2021). This dynamic perpetuates “digital colonialism,” wherein Western institutions retain authority over how digitized heritage is categorized, accessed, and interpreted.

The ethical risks associated with the digitization of sacred and sensitive materials also present critical challenges. Without robust community consultation and consent, digital repatriation can result in the unintentional exposure of knowledge that communities deem private or sacred (Leditschke et al. 2024).

Legal ambiguities surrounding ownership and copyright further complicate digital repatriation efforts. Institutions often assert intellectual property rights over digital representations, effectively creating new forms of dispossession and reinforcing “intellectual property imperialism” (Oruç 2023).

Moreover, digital divides continue to hinder equitable participation in digital repatriation initiatives. Many communities face barriers related to infrastructure, technological capacity, and digital literacy, limiting their ability to access, manage, and benefit from digital heritage (Shepardson 2023; Smith and Ristya 2023).

Ownership, Control, Ethical Governance, and Justice

The success of digital repatriation depends fundamentally on reconceptualizing ownership, control, and ethical governance. True digital repatriation must prioritize the sovereignty of source communities over their digital and physical heritage. This requires dismantling traditional hierarchies of knowledge production and curatorship that have historically marginalized Indigenous voices.

Frameworks such as Traditional Knowledge Labels (Local Contexts 2021) offer practical mechanisms for communities to assert cultural authority over digital content, specifying conditions of access, attribution, and usage. Community-led governance models based on principles of free, prior, and informed consent, reciprocal benefit, and cultural sensitivity are essential for ensuring that digital repatriation initiatives respect Indigenous legal and ethical systems (Owan et al. 2023).

Innovative approaches leveraging blockchain and NFTs provide additional tools for Indigenous communities to control the circulation of their digital heritage and resist unauthorized appropriation (Feld 2023). However, technological solutions must be embedded within broader frameworks of ethical collaboration and decolonial practice to avoid replicating existing inequities.

Justice in the context of digital repatriation demands more than technological fixes; it requires meaningful restitution, recognition of historical harms, and the establishment of equitable partnerships between institutions and source communities. As Sarr and Savoy (2018) argue, digital repatriation should complement, not replace, physical returns and broader decolonization efforts.

Ultimately, digital repatriation can serve as a powerful catalyst for restorative justice, cultural revitalization, and global solidarity. However, achieving these goals necessitates a sustained commitment to centering community agency, respecting cultural protocols, and challenging the legacies of colonialism embedded within heritage institutions and digital infrastructures.

Conclusion

Digital repatriation stands at the intersection of innovation and restitution, offering unprecedented opportunities to bridge historical divides and empower communities historically marginalized in cultural heritage discourses. As digital technologies increasingly permeate every aspect of cultural management, digital repatriation offers a means for Indigenous and source communities to reengage with dispersed heritage, revitalize endangered traditions, and assert cultural sovereignty in new and dynamic ways.

Nevertheless, digital repatriation is fraught with complexity. Access to digitized heritage, while important, cannot substitute for genuine restitution of physical objects nor can it rectify the profound harms caused by centuries of cultural dispossession. Without structural transformations in ownership, control, and governance, digital initiatives risk becoming superficial gestures that maintain institutional dominance under the guise of innovation.

True decolonization demands more than the proliferation of digital surrogates; it requires reimagining the ethical frameworks that underpin cultural heritage practices. Institutions must move beyond extractive models of stewardship toward equitable, consent-based collaborations that center the epistemologies, rights, and aspirations of source communities. This includes embracing Indigenous frameworks of knowledge governance, recognizing cultural protocols surrounding access and use, and committing to processes of physical restitution wherever possible.

The future of digital repatriation lies in forging partnerships grounded in trust, reciprocity, and mutual respect. Technology, when harnessed ethically, can serve as a powerful tool for restorative justice, cultural healing, and global solidarity. However, it must always be deployed in ways that prioritize community agency, ensure cultural continuity, and challenge the legacies of colonialism rather than perpetuating them.

As digital heritage practices continue to evolve, it is imperative that scholars, heritage professionals, and policymakers remain critically engaged, ensuring that digital repatriation becomes a catalyst for genuine empowerment and not merely a digital reflection of historical inequities. By centering the sovereignty and visions of source communities, digital repatriation can fulfill its transformative potential and contribute meaningfully to a more just and equitable heritage future.

References

• Allahyari, M. (2016). Digital Colonialism [Lecture and interviews]. Available at: https://morehshin.com/digital-colonialism/ 
• Feld, L. (2023). Activating Refusal: Exploring NFTs to Disrupt Colonial Heritage Systems. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 30(1), 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2023.2277794 
• Hillman, L.J., Hillman, L., Harling, A., Talley, B., & McLaughlin, A. (2017). Building Sípnuuk: A Digital Library, Archives, and Museum for Indigenous Peoples. Collection Management, 42(3–4), 294–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01462679.2017.1331870 
• Krupa, K.L. & Grimm, K.T. (2021). Digital Repatriation as a Decolonizing Practice in the Archaeological Archive. Across the Disciplines, 18(1/2). https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/atd/volume18/Krupa,Grimm.pdf
• Leditschke, A., Nichols, J., Farrow, K., & Brown, Q. (2024). The Ethics and Cultural Sensitivities of Data Management in Indigenous Cultural Heritage. Advances in Librarianship, 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0065-283020240000054003 
• Local Contexts. (2021). Traditional Knowledge Labels. [Online] Available at: https://localcontexts.org/tk-labels/ 
• Open GLAM. (2021). Decolonization and Indigenization. Open GLAM PubPub Platform. https://openglam.pubpub.org/pub/decolonization 
• Oruç, P. (2023). Who Holds Copyright in 3D Copies of Repatriated Cultural Heritage? Kluwer Copyright Blog. https://copyrightblog.kluweriplaw.com/2023/01/05/who-holds-copyright-in-3d-copies-of-repatriated-cultural-heritage/
• Owan, V.J., Ogar, J.O., et al. (2023). Indigenous Research and Data Management in Electronic Environments. In Advances in Information Quality and Management, pp. 342–362. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-7024-4.ch018 
• Poske, C. (2024). Digital Repatriation of Cultural Heritage. In The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Cultural Heritage and Conflict. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67932-6_130-1 
• Sarr, F. & Savoy, B. (2018). Report on the Restitution of African Cultural Heritage: Toward a New Relational Ethics. https://www.about-africa.de/images/sonstiges/2018/sarr_savoy_en.pdf
• Shepardson, Britton L., et al. “Terevaka Archaeological Outreach (TAO) 2019 Field Report: Creating Digital Access to Cultural Heritage.” Rapa Nui Journal 32, no. 1 (2019): 118-134. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/rnj.2019.0003.
• Smith, E.C.H. & Ristya, R. (2023). Protection and Repatriation of Cultural Heritage: Digital Access and Indigenous Rights. https://doi.org/10.4467/2450050XSNR.22.025.17038
• Vapnarsky, V. & Noûus, C. (2021). Digital Repatriation, Amerindian Reappropriations. Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 107(1), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.4000/jsa.19794
• Wikipedia. (2023). Digital Repatriation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_repatriation
• Young, I. (2018). Naming and Claiming: Indigenous Language in Digital Repatriation. MW18: Museums and the Web 2018. https://mw18.mwconf.org/proposal/naming-and-claiming-indigenous-language-in-digital-repatriation/index.html 

22 participants joined us in March for the Communication Strategy and Strategic Marketing for Cultural Organizations training programme. The course was led by Derwin Johnson, an independent senior communication consultant with more than 30 years experience as a journalist, communication executive and educator. Derwin guided participants through the three day course which covered crafting effective communication messages, developing communication toolkits, managing media relations, and conducting crisis simulations.

Day one kicked off with a comprehensive introduction to content management. The instructor outlined key objectives such as crafting impactful messages, managing media relations, and preparing for crisis communication. Participants explored their organisations’ core identities, drafted mission statements, and developed key messages. Through presentations and personalised feedback, they learned how to tailor their communication to resonate with target audiences.

The most compelling aspect of this Heritage Communication course was its emphasis on the dynamic interplay between cultural heritage and modern communication strategies. The course effectively bridged theoretical foundations with practical applications, highlighting the role of digital media, community engagement, and policy frameworks in preserving and promoting heritage.

~Mohammad Idrees Tahiri,  PM Senior Conservation Architect at Turquoise Mountain

On day two, the focus shifted to storytelling and media engagement. Participants were instructed how to think like journalists, considering news angles, timing, and audience relevance. They practised pitching stories via simulated phone calls, received guidance on writing letters to the editor, and explored traditional and digital PR tactics. The session concluded with the creation of communication maps to guide audience engagement across a range of platforms. 

The final day concentrated on crisis communication. Participants learned how to respond effectively under pressure, developing clear, key messages reinforced by strong evidence. A crisis simulation exercise brought the theory to life, as teams navigated a mock media storm, fielding questions from the instructor in the role of journalist. The recorded sessions provided valuable feedback, strengthening their confidence and strategic thinking.

The instructor made the content easy to digest and online learning (over the weekend) manageable. 

~Martha Mosha, Research assistant at Commission for Archaeology of Non European Cultures KAAK

The level of engagement throughout the workshop was excellent and it was great to see the enthusiasm displayed by participants. We look forward to seeing how these skills are put to use in heritage organisations throughout Africa, Asia and Europe.*

Read more about our upcoming workshops here.

*Afghanistan, Albania, Botswana, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Germany, Ghana, Iraq, Italy, Lesotho, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, United Kingdom

A major step was taken in early February  to safeguard the rich cultural heritage of the city of Shibam in Yemen, in the framework of the Preserving the Unique Earthen Architecture of Shibam project, funded by the ALIPH Foundation, is implemented by The Heritage Management Organization (HERITΛGE) in partnership with the American Foundation for Cultural Research (AFCR) and the General Organization for the Preservation of Historic Cities in Yemen (GOPHCY – Shibam).

Museum experts Shatha Safi and Khulod Najjar visited Shibam to guide the community-led design and  planning of a brand new museum to be created by the project. 

Old City of Shibam: a World Heritage Site

The walled City of Shibam is one of the oldest examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction with impressive tower-like structures  Following years of crisis brought about the war in Yemen, compounded by  and the impact of climate change, this unique UNESCO World Heritage Site is facing significant challenges.

The proposed museum project addresses a request from the General Organization for the Preservation of Historic Cities in Yemen (GOPHCY) to create a centralized space that will bring together collections currently dispersed across several venues in the city. In addition to exhibiting Shibam’s history and artifacts, the museum will feature spaces dedicated to traditional arts and crafts, fostering cultural preservation and engagement. Furthermore, a dedicated room equipped with video-conferencing facilities will enable local residents to participate in online training and conferences. To ensure the sustainability of this training venue, the project will install solar panels and an internet connection, providing continuous access to digital resources.

The experts’ visit marked a crucial phase in the project; three key meetings were held to align the museum’s vision with community expectations and institutional support.

The first meeting focused on establishing a framework for the creation and operation of the museum. It brought together Hassan Aideed– Director General of GOPHCY – Shibam, the Local Committee for Museum Preparation, Hedaya Ghraibeh, Project Manager for HERITΛGE with the two visiting experts. Discussions revolved around how the museum can authentically represent Shibam’s history, traditions, and way of life while aligning with the aspirations of the local community. The experts emphasized the importance of preserving both the material culture—such as architectural heritage—and the stories, customs, and knowledge passed down through generations.

The second meeting allowed the project team, the visiting experts, and GOPHCY-Shibam to discuss the museum  with Tariq Falhum, Director General of Shibam District and his team. This discussion highlighted the role of local authorities in supporting the museum’s development and ensuring its long-term sustainability. By integrating the museum into the broader heritage conservation strategy for Shibam, the project aims to strengthen both cultural preservation and community engagement.

The third meeting was held in coordination with the Women’s Development Administration at the District Office. This session brought together 15 women and girls from diverse backgrounds, including home-based workers, recent graduates, shopkeepers, and others, to discuss the evolution of traditional practices and contemporary lifestyles in Shibam. The conversation explored the challenges faced by women and the transformation of their position in society over time, providing valuable insights into the social and cultural shifts within the community.This meeting plays a vital role in ensuring that the museum accurately represents the experiences, voices, and contributions of women to Shibam’s heritage and daily life.

As the planning and design process continues, Shibam is moving closer to having a dedicated space that tells its story and brings the local community together. 

The project provides  practical, on-the-job training for heritage professionals in Shibam, ensuring that conservation efforts are sustained by skilled local experts. Currently, four trainees are already working alongside our architects and engineers on the documentation process for the South Palace, where the museum will be located. 

The Preserving the Unique Earthen Architecture of Shibam project also includes architectural and infrastructure assessments in the first year, along with an in-depth study on climate action, proposing sustainable strategies for both Shibam and Wadi to ensure long-term resilience and preservation. 

Our latest project in war-torn Ukraine has recently completed its first semester. Developed in collaboration with the Kharkiv School of Architecture (now relocated to Lviv) and Skeiron, a Ukrainian organization specializing in 3D documentation, this initiative addresses the urgent need to protect Ukraine’s architectural heritage by establishing an architectural conservation course for students at the Kharkiv School of Architecture. Additionally, it provides training for educators from architectural schools across Ukraine, enabling them to establish similar curricula in their own institutions. As part of the training process, the project will also contribute to creating documentation and conservation plans for monuments in western Ukraine.

The project kicked off on September 27, 2024, with a panel discussion on “Planning for the Post-War Rehabilitation of Ukraine’s Architectural Heritage.” Hosted at the Kharkiv School of Architecture’s Lviv campus, the event brought together leading Ukrainian and international experts in heritage preservation. The discussion set the stage for a two-year program packed with practical activities and tangible outcomes.

• Training the Next Generation of Heritage Architects. Central to the project is its commitment to nurturing a new generation of heritage architects. Spanning two academic years and four semesters, the program will engage two groups of architecture students from across Ukraine in immersive, hands-on learning experiences. Participants will gain practical expertise in 3D documentation, architectural analysis, conservation assessment, international conservation standards and understanding local legal frameworks. The curriculum is designed to prepare students for the complex demands and challenges of heritage preservation in a post-war context.
• Worldwide Expertise, Local Impact. As the project thrives on collaboration, its series of international webinars, lectures and events fosters dialogue between Ukrainian and global experts in heritage documentation and conservation. These public sessions are open to students, professionals, and educators, offering invaluable insights into the latest techniques and best practices. In the first semester alone, the project hosted three engaging webinars featuring outstanding speakers and practical discussions. Recordings of these sessions are available here, ensuring that the knowledge and expertise shared can reach an even wider audience.
• Learning by Doing: Digital Documentation Internships. One of the standout components of the project is its winter internship program. Under the guidance of Skeiron, students will step into the field to digitally document selected heritage sites. Using advanced tools like photogrammetry and laser scanning, they will transform raw data into actionable resources for conservation efforts. By the end of their internships, students will have created high-quality datasets ready to support heritage conservation projects across Ukraine.
• Empowering Educators. Recognizing that lasting change begins in the classroom, the project also offers specialized training for Ukrainian educators and researchers in the fields of architecture and heritage conservation. Through workshops and collaborative sessions, participants explore teaching methodologies and practical approaches to 3D documentation, heritage analysis, and conservation planning. Guided by leading Ukrainian and international experts, this training will equip the participants to develop and integrate heritage preservation courses into their institutions, ensuring the knowledge is passed on to future generations. The next course is set to begin on January 27, 2025. Interested participants can apply until January 6, 2025, by completing the application form available here.

Fall Semester Progress

The first semester of “Architectural Heritage Preservation in Times of War: The Ukrainian Model” brought together 30 highly motivated architecture students —20 from the Kharkiv School of Architecture and 10 from cities across Ukraine, including Kherson, Odessa, Dnipro, Zaporizhzhia, Kyiv, Lviv, and Chernivtsi.

The curriculum focused on equipping the participants with both the theoretical understanding and hands-on skills needed to digitally document Ukraine’s built heritage. The semester’s highlights included: mastering 3D mapping and surveying tools, applying spatial data for heritage management, and creating high-resolution 3D documentation.

The course was carefully tailored to address the unique challenges and opportunities faced by Ukrainian heritage professionals. By integrating lessons from the country’s past experiences and current realities, the program ensured that students could immediately apply their learning to real-world scenarios.

The knowledge and skills gained during the first semester will be put to the test as students embark on winter internships, set to begin on January 20, 2025. During these internships, participants will engage in hands-on fieldwork, live demonstrations, and practical applications of the techniques they’ve learned. Working with state-of-the-art equipment, they will scan and document selected heritage sites under the expert supervision of Skeiron LLC. These real-world experiences will not only solidify their training but also contribute to the preservation of Ukraine’s invaluable architectural heritage.

This semester’s accompanying webinars and public events were attended by hundreds of participants from around the world and are still gaining views online. 

Looking Ahead

In the second semester, the students will explore the historical and technical underpinnings of conservation. The training for educators will significantly expand the impact of the project. The additional public events promise even more opportunities for the real-world application of innovative techniques and for strengthening Ukraine’s capacity for sustainable preservation of heritage. 

Stay tuned for more updates as “Architectural Heritage Preservation in Times of War: The Ukrainian Model” continues to make a tangible difference in preserving Ukraine’s architectural legacy.

If you have any questions, please feel free to contact the project team at [email protected] 

Twenty National Centre for Arts and Culture (NCAC) heritage managers attended an Introduction to Heritage Management and Team Development training delivered on June  25th. The  training was designed and delivered as part of the HerMaP program, which is co-funded by the European Union. HerMaP Gambia strongly supports gender equality and youth engagement by fostering an enabling environment through capacity development initiatives.

The training  was delivered to both new and existing NCAC staff with the aim of enhancing their knowledge of heritage management and efficiently integrating new members into established teams, while supporting the NCAC’s mandate to ensure equitable gender representation at the UNESCO World Heritage Sites it oversees.

HERITΛGE Director, Dr Evangelos Kyriakidis, delivered the Introduction to Heritage Management training while Mamat Sallah, Assistant Director of Museums and Monuments at NCAC introduced trainees to the Mission, Vision, Mandates and Scheme of Service of NCAC.  

Mina Morou and Eirini Oikonomidi, HerMaP Gambia Project Manager  and Assistant Project Manager respectively, introduced trainees to team integration.

The module introducing trainees to heritage management aims to introduce the concepts of heritage and differentiate between tangible and intangible heritage, review the historical reasons for heritage categories and train participants in value-based management principles. The trainees lean how intangible heritage knowledge can inform effective heritage management strategy, to identify the role of heritage managers in the Gambia and recognize the importance and benefits of engaging with local communities.

During the training, participants gained valuable insights into team integration, including an introduction to team development and the role of culture in shaping effective teams. They learned to balance team and individual dynamics while understanding the critical role of psychological safety. In addition, they gained skills to identify and address common team development challenges, enhancing their ability to foster a cohesive and productive team environment.

Find out more about HerMaP Gambia here.